The Epistemological
Paradigm
of Islamic Civilization
By
Mashhad Al-Allaf
Prof. of Philosophy
I argue that Islamic philosophy has an
essence related to the root of Islamic civilization, while other scholars argue
that philosophy itself is the essence of civilization and they claim that the
decline of philosophy leads to the decline of the civilization.[1] But in order to maintain that philosophy is the ultimate
irreducible essence, we must ask them why philosophy declines in the first
place.
If this question is answered in terms
of “something else,” then that “thing” or that ultimate explanation becomes
more essential than philosophy. Then we are led to ask about the essence from
which all these philosophical aspects flow. What is it that underlies the many aspects
of a civilization?
We can answer this question by saying
that it is the law, especially the divine law that underlies any
civilization.[2] A civilization is indeed the systematic set of laws that elevates
individuals spiritually and advances the society socially and materially. A
civilization cannot develop until the more animalistic side of human beings is
controlled, and this is accomplished with comprehensive laws.[3] The legal system has a twofold function: (1) to establish what is
important and beneficial for human existence, and (2) to protect what is
already established, by a set of laws, rules, regulations, and punishments. In
Islamic civilization it is the Islamic law (sharīca) that
plays this role.
An important question arises in
relation to this thesis. If law is the essence of civilization, why do
civilizations with advanced systematic laws decline? I argue that they decline
because the law itself becomes ineffective for one of two reasons: (1) it is
not sufficiently comprehensive to fulfil the needs of humans through space and
time, or (2) the people themselves leave the law and respond to their impulses;
the law is practical, but may not be practiced in the society.
In contrast to other civilizations such
as the Babylonian, Egyptian, Greek, Persian, Indian, and numerous western
civilizations, in which the name of the civilization refers to a geographic
entity or nation, Islamic civilization refers to Islam as its core. This core,
which is Islam, is spiritual and intellectual. It provides man with a universal
outlook (weltanschauung) of the origin of the universe, its essence, its goal,
the meaning of life, values, the relationship between man and the universe, and
the end of this life and what follows.[4]
A question may be raised: how can Islam
as a religion operate as the central core of Islamic civilization and
specifically Islamic philosophy? Since philosophy is an activity of knowledge, I
utilize an epistemological paradigm to illustrate how Islam plays this central
role by stimulating philosophers to continue the search for truth.
Islamic civilization can be represented in a
concentric model—with many circles orbiting around one common center (see the
Epistemological Paradigm that follows the Introduction).[5] This model has two important characteristics: (1) The circles are
not only concentric, but each circle beyond the center may also be regarded as
orbiting around the center, in the manner of a solar system. The core belief (caqīda) is the center. (2) If we
consider the radiuses as representing the pull or force of gravity toward the
central belief (caqīda), then the pull of gravity will be
inversely proportional to the length of the radius; the shorter the radius the
greater the pull of gravity and the longer the radius, the less the pull of
gravity.
The first circle is the central circle. It represents the heart or
the core of Islamic civilization, and is also considered the power behind the
activity and the continuation of Islamic civilization. It is also the core of
all other circles.
This circle represents the creed of
Islam, based on the Qur’an and the traditions of the Prophet
Muḥammad œ (sunna).
Islamic law (sharīca) is
represented in this core that affects all circles in Islamic civilization, not
unlike a supreme constitution that influences all aspects of a civilization.
This inner circle is distinguished by a number of characteristics. It is holy
and absolute; it is perfect, comprehensive, and applicable in all times and
places. It is not a subject of human effort to add or modify or eliminate any
part of it, but it is a perfect subject of human understanding,
reasoning, and reflection, as man strives to form interpretations and make
judgments in this life. The Qur’an strongly encourages such efforts.
The second circle is next to the core
creed. It is here that we find the Qur’anic and ḥadith sciences,
jurisprudence (fiqh), and the foundation and principles of jurisprudence (uṣūl al-fiqh), in addition to what is related to
jurisprudence in the form of Islamic literature in the collection of Islamic
legal judgments. Also in this circle are interpretations of the Qur’an,
understandings of the traditions of the prophet, and the science of recitation
of the Qur’an. This circle includes the rules for self-purification (sufism) and the science (based on the Qur’an and sunna) of interpreting
dreams. The second circle is concerned with problems and difficulties in all
aspects of Islamic culture: religious, social, political, and economic.
The third circle represents the
sciences and studies that Muslims consider important, such as Arabic and
philology. These subjects are critical to man’s efforts to prove the
superiority of the meaning and linguistic structure of the Qur’anic language.
We also find here the study of syntax and the semantics of Arabic, in addition
to Arabic and Islamic literature. The third circle includes history, genealogy,
law, administration, and the organization of the social and economic life of
Muslims, in addition to arts in general and particularly calligraphy.
The fourth circle represents
mathematics, physical sciences, astronomy, geometry, medicine, pharmacy,
agriculture, engineering, and architecture. Although it is far from the core,
the fourth circle serves the core (that directs man to understand the laws of
the universe) by proving the existence of the creator, the acts of creation,
and ultimately His greatness.
Finally, the fifth circle represents
theology, philosophy, ways of practicing mysticism (sufi orders), Islamic
sects, non-Islamic sects, and knowledge that is translated or transferred from
other cultures. Here we find ideas and views that challenge the core itself,
such as skepticism, interpretation, and arguments. In this circle we also find
non-Abrahamic religions and controversies among religious groups. This circle
sometimes provides support to the core, but it may also present challenges that
result from the instability of its nature; it becomes particularly active when
the influence of the core is weakened and other nations and groups activate
themselves in such a way that the intellectual influence of this circle becomes
more noticeable socially and politically.
The central circle or the core is
complete; only this circle is closed, the other circles are dynamic and have
vitality. They are active and open to interact with other cultures and
civilizations, but this interaction does not occur indiscriminately. For
example, the second circle is cautious in its interaction with other
civilizations because it is closer to the core; the third circle opens itself
and interacts more freely with other cultures than does the second circle, and
does so in a way that permits a number of non-Islamic elements to enter or
infiltrate into Islamic civilization. This interaction can be seen in the
influence of Aristotelian logic in the study of Arabic, the influence of Roman
administration on the Umayyad caliphate, and the
influence of Persian culture on Muslims, particularly in methods of
administration and governance in the cAbbasid caliphate.
The fourth and the fifth circles
interact most with other cultures and civilizations. The influence of the
fourth circle on Muslim life is obvious, while the influence of the fifth
circle has been very limited. For example, we can see clearly the ways in which
Greek philosophy faced severe criticism from Muslim scholars; al-Ghazālī’s book
The incoherence of the philosophers [Tahafūt al-falāsifa] is a good example of this.
Later, Aristotelian logic faced a similar fate when challenged by Ibn Taymiyya (661–728 AH / 1263–1328 AD). Philosophy did not enter
the realm of Islamic civilization until Muslim scholars and philosophers
established that logic and reason do not contradict the core, and in fact,
reason and logic can even be used to defend the core.
[2] The validity, comprehension, applicability, and simplicity of law
are some factors that need to be considered in studying any civilization.
[3] For example, ancient agricultural societies are now
considered more civilized than hunter-gatherer societies. Agricultural
societies evince more prudent and systematic thought than hunter-gatherer
societies and forethought is a distinguishing feature of a civilized society.
Such systematic thinking and forethought manifest themselves clearly in the
laws of these ancient civilizations. If humans are left to their impulses,
society will not progress. Furthermore, a civilized act requires the use of
reason to think not only about this life, but also about the hereafter.
[4] For a
philosophical and theological introduction to Islam, see Mashhad Al-Allaf, Mirror
of Realization (St. Louis,
MO: IIC Classic Series, 2003).
[5] See Mashhad
Al-Allaf, Dr. Yāsin Khalīl siratuhu wa falsafatuhu wa camāluhu
cilmiyya [Dr. Yāsin Khalīl: His philosophy and scientific works],
(Baghdad, Iraq: University of Baghdad Press, 1988), pp. 298–302. While Dr. Yāsin
Khalīl used this model to clarify the Arabic sciences; the model being used
here represents Islamic civilization.
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