Islam, Christians and the West

Written by Hamid Naseem Rafiabadi

 

To start with there are hundreds of Quranic verses in which Jews and Christians have been mentioned in great details. Moreover the “common points”, “propositions”, “agreements”, or tenets on which Muslims and "The People of the Book" have similar views, cooperation has been sought and they have been exhorted to find the commonalties rather than differences. Apart from the religious scriptural treatment that has been given to them by the Quran, there are historical evidences, which show that the People of the Book have cooperated in the past in clandestine manner and have also entered into very healthy dialogue. For instance, Jews enjoyed better treatment after they were expelled from Spain in 1492, and their forced conversion in Portugal 1497.Because at that time, many Jews escaped to the Muslim kingdoms of North Africa, or the Ottoman empire, where they mostly lived in peace. Moreover, the powerful role played by Jews in the Ottoman court of the 16^th and 17^th centuries is also very significant. There was no tradition of bad feeling between Muslims and Jews until 1900.

These ill feelings seem to have begun with the first settlements in Palestine of Zionists, and they worsened greatly after first the Balfour Declaration of 1916, and then the creation of the state of Israel, to the point that the two are seen today as ‘natural’antagonists. In the same way the relations of Christians and Muslims were very congenial from very beginning. The Quran mentions this fact in unequivocal terms that Christians are nearest in friendship to the Muslims and believers. For example the Quran says: -“…. Thou wilt find the nearest in friendship to the believers (Muslims) to be those who say we are Christians. That is because there are priests and monks among them and because they are not proud.”(Surah 5: Ayah 82)

Letter of Prophet Muhammad to Negus of Abyssinia

When the Prophet received first revelation, it was the Christian Waraqa ibn Nawfal who form the first time acknowledged him as the Prophet. Historically speaking, when Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) revolted against the worship of idols in Mecca and told the people that they should worship the God who created the heavens and the earth, he and his followers were persecuted. and about eighty of his followers were forced to go to a Christian nation, namely Ethiopia. The Christian king of Ethiopia gave these persecuted Muslims as a safe haven and took care of them until their country was safe enough to return. It is however unfortunate that due to the unfortunate legacy of the Crusades, Muslims and the Christians have not considered these verses in the textual as well as practical context. In the sixth year of Hijrah, the prophet granted to all Christians a Charter that is a monument of enlightened tolerance. "They were not to be unfairly taxed, no Bishop was to be expelled from his monastery, no pilgrim to be detained from the pilgrimage, and no Christian churches were to be pulled down for the building of mosques. Christian women marrying Muslims were to enjoy their own religion. In case of the repair of the Churches the Muslims were to help the Christians.” 

As mentioned by several commentators of the Quran, the verse (3:64) has mentioned ‘kalimah sawaa’, the translation of the ‘kalimah sawaa’ can be “equitable proposition” or “common tenet”, or “points of agreement”. In this verse the Muslims have been exhorted to come closer to the People of the book, Jews and Christians and start by identifying the commonalties. The Jews were living at Yathrib. They were informed of the coming of Prophet as a zealous supporter of their Scriptures and as Muhammad, claimed to be so, they were eager to receive him in their midst. Then the Prophet’s entering into agreement with the Madinites especially Jews who lived in and about Madinah. This agreement which is commonly known as the "Constitution of Madinah" included among other things clauses like Muslims, Jews and other communities of this Republic should be free to profess their own respective religious ceremonies. .Nobody could interfere in it. Not only this, the Prophet, at the beginning, acknowledged the divine authority of the religion of the Jews, and had even rested his claim upon the evidence of their Scriptures. In order to maintain friendly relations with the Jews, the Prophet even adopted some of their customs and ceremonies. Thus the Jews were given civil and religious rights. The Quran as well as the Prophet never foreclosed the channels of religious dialogue, nor of cordial interaction with non-Muslims at the socio-economic and cultural levels. Eliyya, the Metropolitan of Nasibin (1000-1049), a Christian missionary says: -

“ What we believe concerning the Muslims is that their obedience and love impresses us more than the obedience of the people of all other religions and kingdoms that are opposed to us …And it is because Muslims regard it as a matter of religion and duty to protect us, to honour us, and to treat us well. And whoever of them oppresses us, their Master, i.e. their Prophet, will be his adversary on the day of resurrection. And their law approves of us and distinguishes us from the people of other religions, whether Magians or Hindus or Sabians or the others who are opposed to us.”

The Muslims could not behave as curious observers, or as conquers imbued with a sense of civilizational superiority. In the religious environment of the time, they did not isolate themselves or shy away from the challenge of religious diversity. Some Muslim scholars made objective analysis of the social-religious reality. They studied the sacred scriptures and original sources of other religious traditions, researched their meanings and interpretations, and observed their implementation as practiced by their followers. Some even learned the languages of nations other than their own, listened to the teachers of other religious communities and participated in their rituals when and where it was possible. They also tried to acquire a proper understanding of these religious traditions in order to acquire a proper understanding of these religious traditions in order to comprehend the nature and purpose of the religious diversity of mankind in the context of their belief in the unity of Truth.

This venture in the first millenium of Muslim history, especially from the third to the sixth century of Hijrah, resulted in the production of a unique and voluminous literature. Franz Rosenthal writes: -

“The comparative study of religion has been rightly acclaimed as one of the great contributions of Muslim civilization to mankind’s intellectual progress.” 

Kitab al-Milal wa al-Nihal of al-Shahrastani and prior to him al-Biruni, and Ibn Hazm produced one of the most systematic and earliest works on the history of religious doctrines-viz. Kitab al –Fasl fi al-Milal wa al-Ahwa wa al-Nihal.

It is generally believed that the Mutakallimun started their philosophical theology after their interaction with the Damascus and other Church Fathers who engaged them in theological issues such as those concerning the Word of God. Muslim studies dealing of the Bible, both Hebrew and Christian were abundant and go prior to Ibn Hazm. Muslim historians of religions seriously addressed themselves to the issues of religious diversity, both intellectually and religiously. Although they were convinced of the unity of truth and unity of knowledge, they did not brush aside the fact that there existed a variety of religions and world –views. Rather, they took the diversity of religious views as a problem of objective truth and knowledge. They analyzed religious diversity and sought to identify its causes in man rather than in God who was presumed to be the source of its origin. Thus Sharistani, Ibn Hazm, Mullah Muhsin Fani of Dabistan-i –Madhaib and in our times Sir Syed Ahmad Khan and Ismael Raji Faruqui are some important scholars who have written on this subject extensively, which needs elaboration.

 On the other hand there was great interaction and exchange between the Muslims and Christian and Jewish scholars and scientists by way of translation or commentaries through out medieval ages.

One of the pioneer translators from Greek was Abu–Yahya Ibn –Al –Batriq (796-806), who is credited with having translated for Al-Mansur the major works of Galen and Hippocrates. Another early translator was the Syrian Christian Yuhanna ibn –Masawayh, a people of Jibril ibn-Bakhtishu and a teacher of Hunayn ibn –Ishaq, who is said to have translated for al-Rashid certain manuscripts, mainly medical, which the caliph had brought back from Ancyra and Amorium. One of the greatest scholars and nobles of this age was Hunayn ibn –Ishaq (Joannitius, 809-73), who was an Ibadi, i.e. .a Nestorian Christian from al- Hirah .For example, Aristotle’s Hermeneutica was first done from Greek into Syriac by the father and then from Syriac into Arabic by the son Ishaq, who was the better Arabist and who became the greatest translator of Aristotle’s works. Among other books in Arabic Hunayn is supposed to have prepared translations of Galen, Hippocrates and Dioscorides as well as of Plato’s Republic (Siyasah) and Aristotle’s Categories (Maqulat), Physics (Tabiiyat) and Magna Moralia (Khulqiyat). Among these his chief work was the rendition into Syriac and Arabic of almost all of Galen’s scientific output. Seven books of Galen’s anatomy, lost in the original Greek, have luckily been preserved in Arabic. He made translation of the Old Testament from the Greek Septuagint, which unfortunately did not survive. During the reign of Mamun the Jews and Christians were welcomed at the court not only for their learning but also for being well – versed both in Arabic and the language and literature of Greece. Costa, son of Luke was appointed for the translation of Greek and Syrian. The later part of the tenth century saw the rise of Jacobite, or Monophysite, represented by Yahya ibn –Adi, who was born in Takrit in 893 and died in Baghdad in 974,and Abu Ali Isa ibn –Zurah of Baghdad Yahya, who became the archbishop of his church, declared once to the author of the Fihrist that he copied in a day and night an average of a hundred leaves. The Jacobite authors busied themselves with the revision of existing editions of Aristotelian works or the preparation of fresh translations thereof. They were moreover, the chief influence in introducing Neo-Platonic speculations and mysticism into the Arabic world. At one stage, though Muslims employed Christians and sometimes Jews to transfer the treasures of science and knowledge into Arabic languages from Greek and Syriac languages. But later on when Muslims developed their own scientific skills and mastery over the acquired sciences, the Christian and Jews were benefited by this enterprise, in a big way, especially by the experimental method. This experimental method soon reached to the W

An Astrolabe

estern world through Spain. Students from France, England, Portugal, Italy and Germany flocked these for their studies in astronomy, medicine, alchemy, physics, and mathematics in the Universities at Grenada, Cordoba and Madrid. These students translated and contributed original works and became renowned. Important among them were people like John of Lorraine (953) and Gerbert of Ausillac (d.1003), known as Pope Sylvester II, who was educated in Barcelona. He was the first to have learnt and introduced Arabic numerals in Europe. Whether it was he or Adelard of Bath (d.1150) to introduce the same for the first time to Europe is a matter of controversy between the scholars. An Arabic Latin dictionary was compiled for facilitating the exchange of ideas from Arabic resources. Pedro Alfonso (d.1110) contributed a monograph on astronomy along with a world map, drawing heavily upon Muslim astronomers and geographers. Hugo Sanctalenis, Plato of Tivoli (d.1145), Abraham bar Hiyya, Robert of Chaster, Herman of Carinthia and Rudolf of Bruges, studying in Spain, translated Arabic writings on astronomy astrology and alchemy into their native languages. 

The European interest in Muslim scientific writings developed gradually. Many centers for translation, both in and outside Spain, were established and both Christians and Jews of these translation centers rendered Arabic works into Spanish, Latin, Hebrew, Castilian and Portuguese. Toledo, Seville and Salerno gained much fame. The translation academy in Salerno functioned for centuries. The translation center in Toledo was established in 1135 by Raymond I (d.1151). For one hundred and fifty years this great center functioned Smoothly.  Adeland of Bath, John of Seville, Domingo Gundisalvo, Alfred of Sereshal, Daniel of Morley, Gerard of Cremona and Michael Scot (d.1235) were the famous members of the center. Gerard of Cermona is the most renowned among them for having translated ninety-two works such as those of Ibn Sina, Zahrawi and Razi.

Jew translators rendered Arabic writings into Hebrew; notable among them at Toledo center were Abraham bar Hiyya, Abraha bin Ezra, Joseph bin Isaac (d.1170), Judah Ben Tibbon (d.1150) and Benjamin of Toledo. These people flourished in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. In Seville, the translation center was established by Alfonso X, a great scholar and King of Castitia and lived in the last half of the thirteenth century. Important translators of the center were people like Abraham of Toledo, Isaac ibn Sid, Samuelha Levi and Judah Ben Moses.  In Salerno, a part of Italy center of translation, the works translated in this center pertained mainly to medicine. In 600 a school was established which later grew into a medical institution. It became very famous medical institute and was devoted to a university in the thirteenth century. Sarton states that this institution enjoyed the reputation of an international center for science till 1800. Among the important translators were like Constantinus Africans, Adelard of Bath (d.1150), John petrus Alfonsi, and Stephen of Pisa and Moses Farachi (D.1285).

 Arabic language formed part of the curricula in all these universities. Since the middle of the tenth century down to the eighteenth century the trend of teaching Muslim works flourished. In the context of this clandestine translation activity, it is pertinent to note that many Greek works reached Europe only through Muslims. However, many of them have become extinct. Among the books that were frequently reprinted, Qanoon was published fifty times in Europe. European writers have borrowed from Ibn Sina, 29 from Razi, 13 from Zahawi. The translation activities and the commentaries thereupon lead to the development of the experimental method of the Muslims among the European scholars. Roger Bacon, The father of modern science, learnt from Muslims the experimental method, as he was a student in Muslim institutions in Spain. Copernicus, a leading figure in the sixteenth century borrowed freely from Muslim works.

Thus the epoch of translation (750-850), was followed by one of “creative activity” for Muslims not only assimilated the ancient lore of Persia and the classical heritage of Greece, but adopted both to them peculiar Muslim ways of thinking as well. Philip .K. Hitti says for example: “Their translations, transmuted in small degree by the Arab mind during the course of several centuries, were transmitted, together with many new contributions, to Europe through Syria, Spain and Sicily and laid the basis of that canon of knowledge which dominated medieval European thought. And transmission, from the stand point of the history of culture, is no less essential than origination, for had the researches of Aristotle, Galen and Ptolemy been lost to posterity the world would have been as poor as if they had never been produced.”