Written by Dr. Ragheb Elsergany

Geology in the Holy Quran

Many verses of the Holy Quran had clear indications to Geology, such as {And in the mountains are tracts white and red, of various shades of colour, and black intense in hue} [Fater, [the originator], v. 27] and {and We sent down Iron, in which is (material for) mighty war, as well as many benefits for mankind} [Al-Hadeid, [iron], v.25] and: {It is We Who have placed you with authority on earth, and provided you therein with means for the fulfillment of your life}  [Al-Araf, [the heights], v. 10], in addition to many other holy verses which talked about Geology, thus urging Muslims to elaborately study Geology.

Geology in Ancient Times

There is no doubt that the ancients had some though elementary knowledge of metals. With regard to Greek scientists, Aristotle (384-322 BC) divided the world into two main parts; the Earth, consisting of four elements (water, fire, air and dust) and the sky, consisting of ether. Aristotle's views remained dominated until Islam came and put an end to superstitions and charactering mythology[1].

Achievements of Muslim scientists in Geology
Muslim scientists tended to use scientific methods contemplation, deduction and searching for the truth. They made great successes in explaining natural phenomena and studying rocks, metals and mountains. Muslim scientists were able to explain many geological phenomena, such as earthquakes, volcanoes, the tide and the formation of mountains and valleys. Muslim scientists also tried to explain torrents, rivers and creeks.
The first record of geology by Muslims may be formed in the vocabulary contained in dictionaries and language books abounding in that discipline terminology, for example, Al-Sehah by Al-Gawharei, Al-Qamous (the dictionary) by Al-Fayrouzabady[2], Al-Mokhasas (the specialized) by Ibn Seida[3], Travels and Countries books, in addition to the books that studied Al-Gawaher (Gems) such as (description of Jazirat Al-Arab, or Arabian Peninsula) by Al-Hamadany.
The parameters of that science are evident in the works of Muslim scientists such as Al-Kanadi, Al-Razi, Al-Farabi, Al-Masudi, Ekhwan Al-Safa, Al-Maqdisi[4], Al-Biruni, Ibn Sina, Al-Edrisi, Yaqout Al-Hamawi, Al-Qazwini[5] and many others.
Those scientists have developed several theories about earthquakes and their causes and about metals and rocks. They expatiated in defining sedimentary rocks and their fossilization as well as their dimensional changes. Muslim scientists also wrote about meteors, knew their nature and origin and divided them into two types: rocky and iron meteors. They also described their shapes, especially comets (granulated). Muslim scientists, moreover, talked about the high temperature inside the earth. They were the first to produce the theory of refractive and curved mountains formation, in addition to the effects of wreathing conditions on mountains and rivers.
Muslim scientists also offered valuable studies on natural and historical geology and made many achievements in that domain. Water was described best in Muslim scientists' works. They also had pure scientific views in how rivers were formed. This would clearly appear in the Rasa’el (treaties) of Ekhwan Al-Safa, in Al-Nagat, (the salvation) book by Ibn Sina and Aga’eb Al-Makholqat (wonders of creatures) by Al-Qazwini. Added to that, crystallography was originated by Al-Biruni in his book Al-Gamaher fi Mareat Al-jawaher (the Gems) and was then developed by Al-Qazwini in his book Al-Agaeb (wonders). Muslim scientists were thus pioneers in their accurate observations included in those two books.
Muslim scientists dealt also with what we could name (the science of the earth’s oil), which is a branch of applied geology. They distinguished between two kinds of oil and used them. They also talked about prospecting oil and offered models of indirect prospecting.
A few ancient Muslim scientists were interested in studying the shape of the earth, the distribution of water and land, describing relieves of the earth’s surface and the external factors behind forming them, such as rivers, seas, winds and sea storms. Muslim scientists also studied the factors that affect the crust of earth, such as volcanoes, earthquakes and land slides, they also tackled the exchange of places between the water and land and the period of time that it takes, in addition to the development of rivers from youth to old age then death.
It is worth mentioning that geology for Muslims was connected with many other sciences contributed to its development. This was what scientists used to do at that time. There was no specialization in the exact sense of the word, yet there was a sort of comprehensive encyclopedic knowledge. Therefore, Muslim scientists contribute to geology domain came in a variety of volumes under different names. For example, Ibn Sina tackled metals and meteorology[6] in the treatise on metals and higher effects in his book Al-Shefaa (The recovery), Shihab-Eldin Al-Nuwayri[7] tackled geology and meteorology[8] in his book Nehaiat Al-Areb fi fenon al-adab (The purposes of the arts of literature), Al-Masoudi dealt with geological issues side by side with geographical[9] issues in his book “Morog Al-zahab, or (The meadows of Gold).
Earthquakes
The nature of earthquakes has attracted attention. Some ancient Greek philosophers ascribed earthquakes to underground winds, while others ascribed earthquakes to fire in the depth of the earth.
However, Muslim scientists were the first to scientifically describe the causes of earthquakes in the fourth Hijri century (The Tenth Century AD). Muslim scientists were interested in studying earthquakes, recording their dates and locations, their types, their degrees, the movements of rocks resulting from them, in addition to their advantages and disadvantages and the destruction they cause. Some Muslim scientists attempted to understate earthquakes dangers.
Ibn Sina, for instance, was one of the Muslim scientists who tackled earthquakes in his encyclopedia (Al-Shifa’a) or [the recovery] in the section on metallurgy and upper effects, Ikhwan Al-Safa in Al-Rasael (the treaties) and Al-Qazwini in his book Aja’eb Al-Makhloqat & Ghara’eb Al-Mawjodat, or (wonders of creatures and curiosities of things). Everyone of them had his clear opinion in that domain.
Ibn Sina, for example, said in describing earthquakes, their kinds and causes “As for earthquakes, they are sudden movements for certain parts of land because of what happens beneath it. Certainly, something moves inside the earth, which leads to the movement of the overlying part. That part inside the earth might be a vapory or smoky body which rushes as violently as a wind or a liquid body or an aerial body or an igneous body or an earthy body. The latter body moves only if it was subjected to a movement similar to the body beneath was subjected to. The windy body, on the other hand, be it igneous of non igneous, will probably be the underlying cause of the earthquake." [10].
Ikhwan Al-Safa, for their turn, ascribes earthquakes to gases resulting from high temperature inside the earth. Those gases burst from outlets in soft locations, when the earth is rifted, those gases burst out, the place subsides, with a loud noise with a shock would be heard[11].

Metals and Rocks

Muslims knew about metals and precious stones as well as their physical and chemical characteristics. They classified precious stones and gave them accurate scientific descriptions. Muslim scientists also knew the place where each type of precious stones could be found and they were interested in distinguishing good gems from bad ones.
Muslim scientists also tackled the formation of sedimentary rocks and their surfaces; they also studied valleys deposits and the relation between the sea and the land and vice versa and the results of this relation in the form of rocky formations and weathering conditions.

Atared Ibn Mohamed Al-Haseb[12] was perhaps the first to write a book about gems in Arabic, Manafe’e Al-Ahgar, (Benefits of stones), in which he wrote about types of jewels and gems and studied the characteristics of each type[13].

Al-Razi also touched upon that book in his book Al-Hawi (The comprehensive). Muslims had known some 88 jewels extracted from the earth till the era of Al-Biruni. Moreover, Ibn Sina referred in his book “Al-Shifa’a” (The recovery) that stones are formed either from mud by desiccation, or from water by evaporation or deposition.

He also divided metal substances into rocks, sulfates, salts and solubles. He discussed minerals and how they are formed and mentioned a good number of metals and the characteristics of each type and how far they could preserve their physical characteristics. He also pointed out that each type has its special structure which can not be changed by using the converted ways of transformation. Change, however, may only take place in the form and shape of the mineral[14].   

Muslim scientists also talked about physical forms of metals and the physical changes that may occur by their characteristics as a result of external factors. Muslim scientists said that some metals take their own physical shapes without any interference by man in forming them. This may be considered to be augurs what we call now “crystallography”, as Al-Biruni described some of them and talked about the symmetrical surfaces and geometrical shapes.

He went on to say that the forms of diamonds are spontaneous, conical polygonal and some of them are triangular like igneous forms, with adjacent bases and some of them take the double pyramid form. 

As for rocks, Muslim scientists talked about their origin and how they were formed from water (sedimentary rocks) or fire (igneous rocks), they also found the accurate specific weights for a big number of rocks and minerals.

Muslim scientists also focused, in the field of geology, on terrain, the nature of the earth, water geology, paleontology, meteorology, which is the scientific relation between geology and climatology[15].

Seas and Tides
Muslim scientists dealt mainly with seas and rivers geology in their geographical works. They allocated them full sections in their books and mentioned seas names, locations and the countries which overlooked them. They also talked about locations which had once been seas and rivers and other places which are now submerged under the sea and had once been populated in the past.

Muslim scientists also wrote many books on navigation science and the phenomenon of the tide which ships captains used in their sea and river voyages. Some Muslim scientists had unique points of view in that domain, such as Al-Kindi, Al-Masoudi, Al-Biruni, Al-Edrisi, Al-Maqdisi and others.

Almost all books which dealt with countries or regions have mentioned seas and rivers. Al-Masoudi, for example, in his book Akhbar Al-Zaman (The history of the time) talks in detail about the formation of seas, and the opinions of scientists who preceded him in seas. He also mentioned on his book Morog Al-zahab (Meadows of Gold) a number of geological discussions about seas, rivers and tide.

Al-Masoudi devoted a whole chapter in his book to seas and named it; zekr Al-akhbar an entiqal Al-behar[16], (About seas movements). Al-Maqdisi, for his turn, mentioned the dimensions of those seas and the main islands in them, and dangerous places. He also touched on the tide phenomenon and tried to explain it[17].

Muslim scientists knew how wide water surfaces are and their immense sizes compared to land. They also knew that the different terrain combinations prevent water from flooding the surface of the land. Yaqut Al Hamawi says in that regard, “But for that terrain, water would have surrounded it[18] from all sides and flooded it till nothing from it is seen”.

As for the rate of land to water, it was clear in Abul Fedaa’s book Taqwiem Al Boldan, (surveying of countries) that water covers some 75% of the earth, i.e. the land accounts for are fourth of the earth and the other part is submerged under seas[19].

Topography
Muslim scientists gave great attention to studying geomorphology with its two sides; the theoretical and practical. In that domain, they reached facts that comply with modern science, such as the effect of time factor in the geomorphology processes and the effect of the two circulations: the rocky and the astronomical, on exchanging land and water, in addition to the effect of water, wind and climate, in general, on erosion processes.
Al-Biruni was the best among those who dealt with topography. This would be clearly noticed in his explanation of how certain plain in India was formed. He said “There had been a sea basin in the place of that plain, then it was filled with deposits until it turned into a plain”. He also noticed that river deposits become bigger near the riverhead, then they get smaller and softer near the mouth. Large rocks are found near mountains and fast-flowing streams of water and smaller as they get farther and the water gets slower, then they turn into sand near the mouth of the river and near the sea. The land of those plains, he went on to say, was once a sea in the ancient times, and then it was compressed[20] with the loads of floods[21].
Ibn Sina’s points of view in geomorphology were the nearest to modern theories in that domain. For example, he attributed the formation of some mountains to two reasons; spontaneous (direct) and accidental (indirect), the spontaneous one takes place when strong earthquakes push some areas of the earth forming mounds or hills, while the accidental reason happens when the gale-force winds or fast-flowing water erodes parts of the land and leaves other parts, those parts which were not eroded get higher than the eroded ones, and floods extremely deepen their watercourses, while the neighboring parts remain of tremendous height[22].
Meteorology
Muslim scientists knew important facts about that science which they called (the science of higher effects on the weather conditions). This science carefully studies the earth’s atmosphere and focuses on the weather and its phenomena, temperature, density, winds and clouds, and is known as “Meteorology”.
 Linguists preceded scientists in mentioning a lot of terminology about that science. For example, they divided low temperature into: cold, hot, cool, frost, freeze, server frost and sever cold. They also divided high temperature to; hot, genial, swelter, midday heat and sever heat. As for the winds, they divided them according to their properties or the places which they blow from, for instance, northern, northern south, southern, and eastern winds (the sirocco), the west wind (zephyr) which blows from behind the Holy Kaba, the northeast winds, the southeast winds, the southwest and the northwest winds. Muslim scientists named hot winds (simoom), cold winds (gale) rainy winds (Clouds) and the non-rainy winds (the devastating Winds).
They also gave names to clouds which refer to their parts and the stages of their formation, for example, G                hamam (black rainy clouds), nimbi, (white rainy clouds) clouds, rainy cloud, Dima (not rainy cloud) Rabab (white cloud). As for the parts of clouds, they gave names such as; Hidab (the bottom of the cloud) Al-Kfaf (the upper part of the cloud), Al-Raha (the middle of the cloud), Al-Khanzeiz (the far part of the cloud), Al-Bawaseq (the top of the cloud). They also gave water, which comes down from the sky and gather in one place due to low temperature, names such as, dewdrop, moisture, dew, fog, rain, humidity, downpour, flowing rain and torrential rain. All those subjects were carefully studied by Ibn Sina and Ikhwan Al-Safa[23].
   
Fossils
Some Muslim scientists studied fossils in the course of their study the age of earth and their attempts to prove that some parts of the sea turned into land areas. Al-Biruni, for example, cited in his book Tahdeid Nehaiat Al-Amaken Letashih Masafat Al Msaken, (determining the ends of places for correcting the distance of houses) that the Arabian Peninsula was totally submerged with water, and then water dried along the geological periods. Al-Biruni went on to say that if anybody dug water wells, they would find stones, if those stones were broken, they would find that they contain shells and cowries.
The Arabian Desert also used to be a sea and it was then filled with deposits. This would be evidently seen while digging water wells and basins in it. There seems to be layers of dust, sand and gravels[24]. In addition, you may find pottery, glass and bones which could not have been deliberately buried by anybody.
You would find stones containing cowries, shells and the so called fish ears preserved in them, either keeping their original forms or decaying and leaving their shape in the form fossils[25]. Al-Biruni referred here to the fossilized, total organic remains or their prints inside stones, and cites them as a proof that some areas were once under the sea water then turned into land.
Ibn Sina had an opinion which was similar to that of Al-Biruni as he saw in the existence of fossilized sea animals in land areas a clear proof that this area had once been under the sea water in ancient times.
For example, Ibn Sina said in his book Al-Shefa’a, (the recovery), “This earth might have been a large sea in the ancient times, then turned into land after water gradually dried, either because of heat pressure under the sea or after exposure. Its thick mud turned into solid land. Rocks are also found and if they were broken, sea animals, shells and other things would be found[26]”. He went on to say, “If it was true that some animals and plants were fossilized, the reason would be that there is a fossilizing metal force taking place in some sea spots or because of a plot of land which separates from the earth during earthquakes and slides and those fossilizing anything on its way[27]”
This is only some of what Muslim scientists have mentioned in their books and writings about geology, which would evidently prove that Muslim scientists were pioneers in that domain. It is also an obvious proof that Muslim scientists, topped by Ibn Sina, Al-Biruni and Al-Kinadi, were the founders of geology. Modern geology is tantamount to an extension of Muslim scientists' efforts in that field.

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[1] See: Ali Abdullah Al-Daff’a: Rawa’e Al-Hadara Al-Rabia Al-Eslamia fi Al-Oloum (Masterpieces of Arab Islamic Civilization in science. P.291.

[2]-Al-Fayrouzabady: he is Abu Taher Mohamed Ibn Yaquob Ibn Mohamed (729-817 AH/1329-1415AD). He is a prominent linguist and man of letters. He was born in a village in Shiraz and died in Zobida village in Yemen. One of his best works is (Al-Qamus Almuhit) see: Al-Asfahani: Shazarat Al-Zahab (the scraps of gold) 7/126.

[3] Ibn seida: He is Abul Hassan Ali ibn Ismaiel (398-458AH/ 1007-1066AD) a prominent linguist and man of letters. He was blind. He was born in Marsia in Andalusia and died in Dania in Andalusia. One of his best books is Al-Mokhasas (the specialist) see: ibn Khallikan: Wafayat al-Ayan (The Obituaries of Eminent Men) 3/330,331.

[4] Al-Maqdisi: He is Abu Abdullah Mohamed Ibn Ahmed Ibn Abi Bakr Al-Banna. He died in (380AH/990AD) he was a trader, so he knew a lot about countries as he used to travel a lot, then he specialized in studying geography and travelled to Islamic countries. He wrote his book Ahsan Al-Taqaseem fi Marefat Al-Aqaleim (the best divisions in knowing about regions) see: Al-Zirikli: Al-Alam 5/312.

[5] al-Qazwini: He is Zakaria Ibn Mohamed Ibn Mahmoud (605-682AH/1208-12083AD). He was historian, geographer and judge. Most important of his works: Athar Al-Belad wa Akhbar Al-Ebad (history of countries and people) and Aga’eb Al-Makhloqat (wonders of creatures). See: Al-Zahabi: Tazkerat Al-Hofaz2/22 and Al-Zirikli: Al-Alam 3/46.

[6] The science which studies the relation between the Earth and Climate.

[7]Al-Nuwyri: he is Abul Abbas Ahmed Ibn Abdul Wahab Ibn Ahmed Al-Bakri (677AH-733AD/1278-1333AD. He is a brilliant scientist, who originally came to Nuwyira (a village in Beni Sueif in Egypt) He was born in Quos, one of his best works is Nehaiat Al-Areb fi fenon al-adab (The ends of the groin in the arts of literature). See: Ibn Hagar: Al-Dorar Al-Kamena (the Kept Gems) 1/231.

[8] The scientific study of weather conditions.

[9] Ali Abdullah Al-Daffa’a: Rawa’e Al-Hadara Al-Arabia Al-Islamia fi Al-Oloum (masterpieces of Arab, Islamic civilization in science) p.291.

[10]  See: Mohamed Al-Sadeq Afifi: Tatawor Al-Fekr Al-Elmi End Al-Moslmien (Development of scientific thought for Muslims) P.264, and Ali Abdullah Al-Daffa’a: Rawa’e Al-Hadara Al-Arabia Al-Islamia fi Al-Oloum (masterpieces of Arab, Islamic civilization in science) p. 314.

[11] Ikhwan Al-Safa: Rasa’el (treaties of) Ekhwan Al-Safa (2/97) Dar Sader, Beirut. 

[12] Atared Ibn Mohamed: he is Atared Ibn Mohamed Al-Babili Al-Baghdadi (died in 206AH/821AD), He was a brilliant scientist and had written many books, most important of which; Al-amal bel Astorlab (working with Astrolabe) and Tarkeib Al-Aflak (forming orbits) See: Ibn Al-Nadiem: Al-Fehrest (the index): p. 336. 

[13] See: Mohamed Al-Sadeq Afifi: Tatawor Al-Fekr Al-Elmi End Al-Moslmien (Development of scientific thought for Muslims) p. 261.

[14] See: Ibid P.263.

[15] See: Ali Abdullah Al-Daffa’a: Rawa’e Al-Hadara Al-Arabia Al-Islamia fi Al-Oloum (Masterpieces of Arab, Islamic civilization in science) P.294, 295.

[16] Ibn Al-Nadeim: Al-Fehrest(the index) P. 219.

[17] See: Ali Abdullah Al-Daffa’a: Rawa’e Al-Hadara Al-Arabia Al-Islamia fi Al-Oloum (Masterpieces of Arab, Islamic civilization in science) P. 310.

[18]  The Earth.

[19]  See: Ali Abdullah Al-Daffa’a: Rawa’e Al-Hadara Al-Arabia Al-Islamia fi Al-Oloum (masterpieces of Arab, Islamic civilization in science) P.322-324.

[20] Filled with dust and deposits. See: Ibn Manzour: Lesan Al-Arab (Arabic tongue or language) item Kabasa (compress) 6/190

[21] Al-Biruni: Tahqiq Ma lel Hend( Studying India) P. 80.

[22] Ibid.

[23]  See for example: Rasa’el Al-Athar Al-Olwia (Treaties of higher effects on weather conditions) from the Treaties of Ikhwan Al-Safa. Dar sader- Beirut, 2/26 and after.

[24] Gravels are the small stones on which water runs. They are the loose small stones which are not fixed to the earth and would run with the water. Ibn Manzour: Lesan Al-Arab (the Arabic tongue or language), item Rada 7/154.

[25] Al-Biruni: Tahdeid Nehaiat Al-Amaken Letashih Masafat Al Msaken, (determining the borders of places for correcting the distance of areas), quoted by the orientalist Korenco in his memorial binder: 204 from a manuscript in Masjid Al-Fateh library in Istanbul.    

[26] See: Mohamed Al-Sadeq Afifi: Tatawor Al-Fekr Al-Elmi End Al-Moslmien (Development of scientific thought for Muslims) P. 263.

[27]  Ibid. P. 265